In the early 1970s, Stephen Wiesner, then at Columbia University in New York, introduced the concept of quantum conjugate coding. His seminal paper titled "Conjugate Coding" was rejected by the IEEE Information Theory Society, but was eventually published in 1983 in SIGACT News.[3] In this paper he showed how to store or transmit two messages by encoding them in two "conjugate observables", such as linear and circular polarization of photons,[4] so that either, but not both, of which may be received and decoded. It was not until Charles H. Bennett, of the IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center and Gilles Brassard met in 1979 at the 20th IEEE Symposium on the Foundations of Computer Science, held in Puerto Rico, that they discovered how to incorporate the findings of Wiesner. "The main breakthrough came when we realized that photons were never meant to store information, but rather to transmit it"[3] In 1984, building upon this work Bennett and Brassard proposed a method for secure communication, which is now called BB84.[5] Independently, in 1991 Artur Ekert proposed to use Bell's inequalities to achieve secure key distribution.[6] Ekert's protocol for the key distribution, as it was subsequently shown by Dominic Mayers and Andrew Yao, offers device-independent quantum key distribution.
The goal of position-based quantum cryptography is to use the geographical location of a player as its (only) credential. For example, one wants to send a message to a player at a specified position with the guarantee that it can only be read if the receiving party is located at that particular position. In the basic task of position-verification, a player, Alice, wants to convince the (honest) verifiers that she is located at a particular point. It has been shown by Chandran et al. that position-verification using classical protocols is impossible against colluding adversaries (who control all positions except the prover's claimed position).[44] Under various restrictions on the adversaries, schemes are possible.
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Besides quantum commitment and oblivious transfer (discussed above), research on quantum cryptography beyond key distribution revolves around quantum message authentication,[68] quantum digital signatures,[69][70] quantum one-way functions and public-key encryption,[71][72][73][74][75][76][77] quantum fingerprinting[78] and entity authentication[79][80][81] (for example, see Quantum readout of PUFs), etc.
In response to problem 1 above, attempts to deliver authentication keys using post-quantum cryptography (or quantum-resistant cryptography) have been proposed worldwide. On the other hand, quantum-resistant cryptography is cryptography belonging to the class of computational security. In 2015, a research result was already published that "sufficient care must be taken in implementation to achieve information-theoretic security for the system as a whole when authentication keys that are not information-theoretic secure are used" (when the authentication key is not information-theoretic secure (If the authentication key is not information-theoretically secure, an attacker can break it to bring all classical and quantum communications under control and relay them to launch a Man-in-the-middle attack).[119]Ericsson, a private company, also cites and points out the above problems and then presents a report that it may not be able to support the Zero trust security model, which is a recent trend in network security technology.[120] 2ff7e9595c
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